Introduction

The following summary encompasses themes that emerged during the data collected from female participants in relation to their childhood experiences, and how gender roles impacted on the way they grew up within their household environments. Themes that materialized from the data consisted of how gender roles are socially constructed within family settings, family living arrangements, division of household tasks according to gender variations, unequal gendered power relations, and authoritative patterns within the household. Relevant literature has been examined in order to substantiate and comprehend how stereotyped gender roles in the household customarily existed, and how this is changing today.

Definition of Gender

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles ascribed to women and men, as opposed to biological and physical characteristics (Bannon, et al. 2005: 3).

Gender Roles

Gender roles vary according to socio-economic, political and cultural contexts and are affected by other factors such as age, class and ethnicity (Bannon, et al. 2005: 3). Gender roles are learned, negotiated or contested and therefore changeable (Bannon, et al. 2005: 3).

How Gender roles are socially constructed within Family settings

Family roles, social identities, self-concepts and the role of mothering indicate array of priorities, goals and needs that are consistent from generation to generation in the family environment based on customs, societal influences or standard ideologies (Cheal, 2002: 101). Gender stereotypes are related to sex-role ideology often used as a basis for justification for those beliefs, and are the psychological characteristics in favoring one gender above the other (Berry, et al. 1997: 169. Kidd and Steel (2001: 35) points out, that the Functionalist perspective of how family members function stems from the basis of social order wherein a set of shared values lies, and that these values run through all parts of social structures and institutions, forming a vital source of integration for society. Additionally, Kidd and Steel (2001: 38-39) highlights how these institutions contribute to our sense of socialization from early childhood. In turn, projecting ways in which gender is stereotyped:

• Education- family socializes child before school and provides support during school years. Participants indicated that their roles as girls were taught differently to that of boys.
• Religion- provides family solidarity and sets down rules for marriage and family relationships. Participants indicated how important religious beliefs were as guidelines for morality, example, “Women could only have children on condition within the marriage, with her husband”.
• Politics- family provides new socialized citizens and instills young people with initial political attitudes. Political principles children were taught in the home, they were expected to practice outside.
• Law- determines boundaries with regard to how family members can treat each other. Over the past centaury, laws have been patriarchal in the legal system, today new laws have been written to promote equal rights for both men and women (Baker, 2001: 30).
• Work- supplies jobs and income to support family members. Gender inequality usually stems from unequal power imbalances as far as finance is concerned. Female participants indicated that their husbands were the breadwinners in sustaining the needs of family members, and who made decisions in terms of how the money should be spent.

Division of household tasks according to gender variations

Harding (1995:14) is of the opinion that the division of household tasks within the family setting has been slow to change in which paid work has not freed women from household responsibilities any more than it has freed them from economic dependency. Most domestic and child-care work is still done by women even when they also do paid work (Harding, 1995:14).

Family Living Arrangements

Participants indicated that in their childhood they lived with extended family members who supported each other financially. Extended families remain important among some cultural groups both as living arrangements and in terms of a support mechanism (Baker, 2001: 27).

Unequal gendered power relations 

A basic condition for families to survive depends on the acquired material resources used for familial purposes, in which earned income is the most important economic resource for families in urbanized and industrialized societies, since things that are needed must be purchased (Cheal, 2002: 108-109). When women and men are not financially equal, gender divisions surface in terms of control over money (Cheal, 2002: 110). Data revealed that female participants’ administrated money for things required in their household such as food, clothing, or kitchen utensils which was primarily the woman’s/ wife’s duty. This particular financial relationship demonstrated a division between money management (for example, administrating money and financial control in deciding how the money should be spent) which was normally a choice of the participants’ husband. This is much less customary today than in the past due to the fact that employed wives are generally less dependant on their husbands for support (Cheal, 2002: 110).

Authoritative patterns within the Household

While Australian, New Zealand and Canadian governments have dropped the notion of identifying a family head for the purpose of policy consensus, most family systems designate a representative who makes major decisions and speaks on behalf of the family group as both Western and Eastern societies use a system of patriarchy in which the eldest male is typically the head (Baker, 2001: 29, 30). Evidently, participants drew on traditional notions of what they have been taught (example, women were expected as good wives to obey their husband’s decisions). Consequently, this pattern may reflect long-standing deeply held cultured or religious beliefs fundamental to people’s identities (Elliot, 1996: 40). Participants have accommodated their roles as wives and have unconsciously detained their husbands’ role (male stereotype) as superior to their own, since they were the dependant partner. 

Couples may be inclined to manage their economic conditions differently when married as Chapman (2004: 74) recommends three opposing justifications in terms of these variations:

1. Men and women consider their circumstances and the prevailing labour market usually in favour of men, then decide that it will be of greater benefit if they invest most of their resources into his career.
2. Couples may draw heavily and possibly unconsciously, on customary ideologies and beliefs to establish conservative gendered practices that support men’s careers.
3. The power perspective affirms that men, because of their economic authority, can make decisions without considering the viewpoints of their wives because they are aware that their profits are vital to maintain the household. 

Current Legislation and Policies to promote Gender equality within the Family

Traditional ideologies consider men as more important than women in their right to dominate and control family members, especially if they maintain the household financially. On the other hand, modern ideologies represent a more equalitarian view, whereby both women and men are vital in decision-making aspects and roles in the family setting, in which the dominance of one gender is rejected. The following legislation seeks to promote gender neutrality and human rights in South Africa:

• Gender Equality Act 39 of 1996
• Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 108 of 1996
• Welfare Laws Amendment Act 106 of 1996
• Divorce Amendment Act 95 of 1996
• Domestic Violence Act 99 of 1998
• Maintenance Act 99 of 1998
• Marriage Act, Extension Act 50 of 1997

Conclusion

Pluralism and diversity in modern family life recognizes that there is no answer to the question of how home life and relationships can or should be structured (Kidd & Steel, 2001: 50), especially since a wide diverse range of household compositions and relationships are experienced in South African families today. Rivett and Street (2003: 21) suggests that in movement, change and differentiation within families is a continuous and natural occurring process. Most of these readings have similarities concerning gender inequalities, power imbalances, the man as the primary breadwinner, stereotypes, traditional values and customs, and how society determines the way men and women should act within the family arrangement or household, and the wider community. Proposed recommendations are continually made on how current policies should be flexible in terms of the diversity within families that exists in today’s world. Attitudes concerning gender and the way we perceive things are vital to diminish inequalities that result from the undervalued of caring activities in society, especially between men and women (Williams, 2004: 84).

Research Methodology

Many things were done in order to compose this study.  First, an individual woman of choice was chosen based on many factors. A complete background and life story was written up from the interviewee’s perspective and in their own words. These women were to give every detail of their lives ranging from the time they were born to the lives they lead in today’s society. Giving insight into the lives of these three distinctive women really helps diversify and explore the roles of these different yet alike women. These women were chosen because of their courage, life, uniqueness, ability to overcome hard obstacles and much more. These women also provided homes as well as greatly affected the lives of the interviewer, thus the reason of selection.

Thorough interviews were conducted to gather information on the subject matter. Interviewees were asked a variety of questions from their past, present, and future. These questions consisted of their opinions and roles in the house such as the meaning of family, how chores were divided up, a weekly general schedule, and much more. The researchers in this study used many PLA techniques and other participatory methods such as listening, observing, and asking plenty of questions. Another good PLA technique was the usage of genograms; they have the ability to provide a family tree amongst other things that cannot be asked with just mere questions. One PLA technique of great importance was the consideration and understanding differences present without the negative judgment from the researchers; being sensitive and mindful of others are good qualities to have while in a interview. Those mentioned techniques served fine for the study, however using things such as a complete schedule is not an effective technique for it was not necessarily important or relevant in the study maybe just to see the participant’s busyness.  For a more thorough and complete list of questions, refer to Appendix C.

From the information gathered, an analysis was conducted on each interview and life story. An examination of differences and similarities was needed for the final project result and meaning. The researcher then explored ideas and concepts of a study, and composed a report on the findings. The participants consisted of different women from all walks of life. Participant 1 is from Greece; Participant 2 is from China, while participant 3 is from South Africa. These three are very distinct culture, have different ways of doing things, and different perceptions and definitions of gender roles.

A letter of consent was needed for the permission of use. Only after obtaining the signed letter of consent can the interview process truly take place. It was needed to obtain permission to participate in the study as well as letting the participants know that the study is completely voluntary and without any obligation. Even with the signature of the participant, that individual can withdraw from that study at any time. The letter of consent also serves as a form to let the participants know there is no incentive or reward involved with the study. One important purpose is making clear to the participants of the study is the anonymous nature of the study. The identity of the participants as well as the people they name or talk about will remain protected.

In the duration of the study, some problems rose up as progress was hard to make with the communication of the study. People are on different schedules making a unison project hard to complete in a timely manner. Another problem was the collection of information, interviews, and life stories. Some were not rich in data while others were a completely good source to use. After gathering all information, a collective theme was needed as the topic of the study which was difficult to compose without copious data. Because the women of the study were so diverse and different, the similarities were rare and hard to scope out.

If a repeat of the research was necessary, a more direct communication style would be used as well as trying harder to achieve plentiful and productive data information to use as a topic for the study. Another good variation of the study would be to collect more information even once the interviews are completed, but obtaining more information that could serve the paper instead of just working with what was already gathered. Researchers should try their best during the interview times to use alternate PLA techniques such as recording the tone of the participants or taking notes on the body language and action of the participants. Trying to reach a common goal is key, for example since the interviewers already knew the participants, the interviewers could come collectively and explore different topic/similarity ideas beforehand to acquire more usable data in that sense.

Results

There are many similarities and differences between the three interviews. Some themes that are prevalent are: religion, traditional gender roles, and how stereotypes are broken. To begin, all three interviewees were women. Chelsea and Sophia are one of four children and they are also the youngest. Mei is just one of two. All three women were born outside of the United States: one is from Greece, another from China, and the last from South Africa. This plays a big role because we get to see how life was in foreign countries, something many would not be able to understand while growing up in the United States. The first major similarity is how family plays an important role in the women’s lives; not only the fact that family is important, but also they are close to their big extended families. Chelsea lived with her extended family for several years, “My family was close and even though at times it felt overcrowded, I enjoyed the company as a child. Many friends and other family members were most welcome to visit the house…” For Sophia, she was close to her extended family as well; even the ones that did not live in the same city. She saw them on a regular basis and even hung out with the neighborhood kids almost everyday. Mei was close to her family and missed them even more when she had to leave them behind. All three women have lost either one or both parents at a young age, which has left permanent marks on their lives. According to sophia, it was not easy to let go of their loved ones, “At the age of eight, my dad became ill with cancer and died a year later. It was the worst time of my life…”

Religion seemed to play an important role for two out of the three interviewees, Chelsea and sophia ; both were and seem to still be regular churchgoers. Helen remembers how every Easter and Christmas was important by going to church and celebrating with the family/ neighborhood, she eventually ended up working for the church office. Chelsea’s family was involved with church whether it was with the Sunday school, choir, or as preachers. Only two women emigrated from their home country in order to better their lives. It was definitely not easy for them to just pick up and leave their beloved country. Both had decided that life would be better if they moved to the United States; they would leave behind a dark past and create a new and brighter future. “Shortly thereafter, my mom’s family decided that it would be a good idea to immigrate to the United States for a better life” as was stated by sophia. Although moving to a foreign country was tough, they stuck it out and eventually adapted to the culture, language, and way of life without forgetting where they came from and who they are.

The most prevalent issue would have to be the fact that traditional gender roles existed and were portrayed within the families, but these roles changed over time. For the most part, all the women in the women’s families were homemakers, cared for children, cooked, cleaned, etc., while all the men in the families worked and were the financial supporter. According to Chelsea, “My father worked in a factory as a clothing cutter… my mother and grandmother was always at home, housekeeping, and cooking.” She also stated, “My stepmother was always cleaning the kitchen and preparing food for the next day…” sophia’s mother did not have to work because her father was able to support everyone, “My mother was a homemaker, just like a typical Greek woman at that time. She did not work because my father was able to support the entire family.” sophia also remembers her grandmother as a housewife, “My grandmother had a cow and this is how we got milk. She also made butter, cheese, and other dairy products.” The only exceptions to these stereotypical roles were the parents of mei, “My father was an engineer, one that has built the dams of China.” She also states that her mother worked as a professor of engineering. mei’s mother held a high professional job and for those times, it was very rare to find women of such power.

With this issue in mind, the typical gender roles were challenged and broken by these women and their families. They had to get jobs at young ages to help support the family financially because of deaths in the family, but also there were women that got their first jobs late in life because they had to become the head of the household. Chelsea’s first job was at the age of sixteen in order to help financially and her next stable job was at a clothing factory. Mei’s first job was with a hosiery company in the United States in which she gained about ten cents per panty hose sewed. For sophia’s mother, her first job ever was late in life; “My mom got a job for the first time as a seamstress for Belk.” It was the easiest thing she could have done taking into consideration language barriers, transportation difficulties, and the fact that she still had to care for her children. sophia got her first job at the age of fourteen in a restaurant simply taking orders. At about sixteen years of age, she got a job with Lance Company, but had to drop it in order to keep up with her schoolwork. It does not seem that these women really wanted to go to work, but instead they had to in order to have income and in a sense be stable. There did not seem to be any difficulties for them switching gears, but they had to in order to better their lives.

All three interviews have similarities and differences. Some themes that run through each one includes: strong women, family, religion, immigration, gender roles, and breaking away from stereotypes. From these interviews, our past plays a huge role in the way our lives are shaped today, we must not dwell on what could have been, but be thankful for what came out of it. Each woman had their own problems/ difficulties and were challenged at some point in their lives, but they stuck it out and overcame their struggles to be the best they could be; for themselves, but also for their families.

Methods: (Elizabeth)

    Many things were done in order to compose this study.  First, an individual woman of choice was chosen based on many factors. A complete background and life story was written up from the interviewee’s perspective and in their own words. These women were to give every detail of their lives ranging from the time they were born to the lives they lead in today’s society. Giving insight into the lives of these three distinctive women really helps diversify and explore the roles of these different yet alike women. All three women were mothers of the interviewer. These women were chosen because of their courage, life, uniqueness, ability to overcome hard obstacles and much more. These women also provided homes as well as greatly affected the lives of the interviewer, thus the reason of selection.

Thorough interviews were conducted to gather information on the subject matter. Interviewees were asked a variety of questions from their past, present, and future. These questions consisted of their opinions and roles in the house such as the meaning of family, how chores were divided up, a weekly general schedule, and much more. The researchers in this study used many PLA techniques and other participatory methods such as listening, observing, and asking plenty of questions. Another good PLA technique was the usage of genograms, they have the ability to provide a family tree amongst other things that cannot be asked with just mere questions. One PLA technique of great importance was the consideration and understanding differences present without the negative judgment from the researchers; being sensitive and mindful of others are good qualities to have while in a interview. Those mentioned techniques served fine for the study, however using things such as a complete schedule is not an effective technique for it was not necessarily important or relevant in the study maybe just to see the participant’s busyness.  For a more thorough and complete list of questions, refer to Appendix C.

From the information gathered, an analysis was conducted on each interview and life story. An examination of differences and similarities was needed for the final project result and meaning. The researcher then explored ideas and concepts of a study, and composed a report on the findings. The participants consisted of different women from all walks of life. Participant 1 is from Greece; Participant 2 is from China, while participant 3 is from South Africa. These three are very distinct culture, have different ways of doing things, and different perceptions and definitions of gender roles.

A letter of consent was needed for the permission of use. Only after obtaining the signed letter of consent can the interview process truly take place. It was needed to obtain permission to participate in the study as well as letting the participants know that the study is completely voluntary and without any obligation. Even with the signature of the participant, that individual can withdraw from that study at any time. The letter of consent also serves as a form to let the participants know there is no incentive or reward involved with the study. One important purpose is making clear to the participants of the study is the anonymous nature of the study. The identity of the participants as well as the people they name or talk about will remain protected.

In the duration of the study, some problems rose up as progress was hard to make with the communication of the study. People are on different schedules making a unison project hard to complete in a timely manner. Another problem was the collection of information, interviews, and life stories. Some were not rich in data while others were a completely good source to use. After gathering all information, a collective theme was needed as the topic of the study which was difficult to compose without copious data. Because the women of the study were so diverse and different, the similarities were rare and hard to scope out.

If a repeat of the research was necessary, a more direct communication style would be used as well as trying harder to achieve plentiful and productive data information to use as a topic for the study. Another good variation of the study would be to collect more information even once the interviews are completed, but obtaining more information that could serve the paper instead of just working with what was already gathered. Researchers should try their best during the interview times to use alternate PLA techniques such as recording the tone of the participants or taking notes on the body language and action of the participants. Trying to reach a common goal is key, for example since the interviewers already knew the participants, the interviewers could come collectively and explore different topic/similarity ideas beforehand to acquire more usable data in that sense.

Results: (Evelyn)

  There are many similarities and differences between the three interviews. Some themes that are prevalent are: women’s point of view, family, religion, immigration, traditional gender roles, and how stereotypes are broken.